Language acquisition
Based
on international research, practice and comment, Della Chiesa, Scott and Hinton
(2012) identified strong connection between language and culture(s), looking
for future benefits in human endeavour, partly as a result of recognizing that
language acquisition and use does not develop in isolation from socio-cultural
and indeed brain development. International understanding is perceived
as a desired social outcome of such interventions.
Features
of language learning assist teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse students. Learners
learn a language best when treated as individuals, experience authentic
activities in communication in the target language and see teaching as
relevant to their needs. Learning should be relevant to their needs and they
benefit from seeing strong links between language and culture. They also
benefit from having helpful feedback on their progress and where they can
manage their own learning. (Vale, Scarino and McKay, 1991)
Background
information
Demographic shifts, i.e. changes
in the demolinguistic situation, have taken place. Children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, including immigrant
and refugee children, are entering schools all over the world; changing demographics will alter both school practices
and policies (Center for Public Education, 2012). Features of experiences for students in various
countries include:
- Culturally and linguistically
diverse students in Australia typically come from a wide range of language, socio-economic, cultural and religious
backgrounds. Up to one-fifth of such students are newly arrived in Australia
and with a language background other than English; even if some students are
born in Australia, they may enter the school system with little or no English
language. (Department of Education of Western Australia, 2011). Australian
schools may experience large populations of immigrant and/or refugee students
(Ho, 2011).
- There were similar issues in
Canada, where students did not have language skills in the main languages
used for teaching and learning, though differences in educational
performance reduced as students progressed through the school system
(Statistics Canada, 2001).
- The United Kingdom too
experienced similar issues, where a focus on educating significant numbers
of students who spoke English as an additional language (EAL) (British
Council, 2014).
- Looking at countries where English is not the
main or major language of teaching and learning, the European Commission
(2015) reported very similar issues for schools and for students, not
least for asylum seekers.
- The USA too has seen changing demographics in schools. Forty-seven
percent of children younger than five belong to a racial or ethnic minority
group, and “trends in immigration and birth rates indicate that soon there will
be no majority racial or ethnic group in the United States” (Center for Public
Education, 2012). Implications for such
trends may include needs for qualified
bilingual teachers, preschool programms, concerns over drop-out rates
from mainstream education, and other resource issues in schools.
Important identity issues in the context of the
school community
This paper posits that the school library must be a safe space that
welcomes all questions, perspectives and backgrounds. School libraries offer
valuable resources (in both traditional and digital format), information,
knowledge and insight. In a school
context, a library space is one where students can explore their ideas and ask
questions. Librarians provide
specialised support within this domain and have a responsibility to support the
growth of their students. Such healthy
development of students can have a strong impact on self-esteem, academic
performance and feelings of cohesion. In
a multi-cultural school setting, issues of race, ethnicity and culture play a
central role in the identity of the school and its students. Celebrating our differences is one way of
acknowledging the diverse backgrounds of members of the school community,
though such diversity can be overshadowed by a dominant culture and its
narrative.
As professionals in education, it is our responsibility to develop
competence in the areas that matter to our students, including our own
understanding of race, culture and ethnicity, to ensure that young people
receive targeted guidance and support they need in order to explore a healthy
sense of self.
Identity
Central to identity formation is the “challenge of preserving one’s
sense of personal continuity over time, of establishing a sense of sameness of
oneself, despite the necessary changes that one must undergo in terms of
redefining the self” (Harter, 1990). Adolescence is an important and formative
period in life that influences many parts of identity development (sexual,
racial, ethnic, gender, etc.). Identity development is a dynamic process that
plays a central role in developing our relationship to the self, the other and
our social environment. It is especially
during adolescence that we play around with multiple identities, experiment
with “the rules” and test the institutions around us. As a result of this process, parts of our
identity are kept and nurtured, while others are briefly worn and discarded.
Much research about racial and ethnic identity
development has focused on adolescent and college age individuals. (Helms (1990)
in Phinney, 2007, p. 275) This makes sense because self-reflection is an
important part of collecting data. It does not necessarily imply that younger
children do not have the ability to reflect, but their process of reflection
may be different. For example, younger
children tend to describe themselves in a more simple, less sophisticated way,
according to their perception of personality characteristics -- "I am
nice"/ "I like to make other people feel good"/ "I like to
help people". This is less about their relationship to things (toys, food)
and more about their understanding of certain qualities (both good and bad).
For example, "I am good at writing and bad at soccer". This relates
to ethnic identity development, when children become aware of good and bad
qualities about their ethnic group. Understanding why society deems these
certain qualities good or bad is perhaps one way to help prepare them for
dealing with a multi-cultural environment with dominant ideas that are not
their own. Ethnic identity has been studied largely with reference to one’s
sense of belonging to an ethnic group, that is, a group defined by one’s
cultural heritage, including values, traditions, and often language (Phinney
2007, p. 274). Finding interactive and "fun" ways to help children
explore or even explain their understanding of these things is one role the
school library can play; by facilitating access to information, librarians can
guide students through relevant books, movies and other multimedia tools.
Adolescence is a developmental stage between childhood and adulthood
when individuals experience biological, social and psychological change.
According to psychoanalyst Erik Erikson (1968), ego identity versus role
confusion. It is the psychosocial stage
of personality development that adolescents encounter when faced with the
question, “Who am I?”. A healthy
resolution of this stage can lead to strong ego identity. Unhealthy resolution
of this stage will contribute to role confusion. Role confusion challenges our
ability to build connections and participate as members of society. Here,
adolescents create and recreate meaning to provide themselves with a sense of
connection. When a lack of connection exists, the ego struggles to build a
foundation for fidelity, based on loyalty. If adolescents lack fidelity, they
might encounter, in extreme cases, a future of social pathology, crime and
prejudicial ideologies. These negative
characteristics can manifest when the individual participates as an adult, for
example, in religious, athletic, national, and military rites and ceremonies
(Engler, 2014).
Racial, Cultural and Ethnic
Identity
A healthy racial and ethnic identity can help youth establish a
consistent view of themselves. Many aspects of adolescence are transient and
changing. One day we love the color yellow and the next day it is the color
red. Thus, by creating a permanent anchor from which to develop, we give our
students a better chance at achieving positive outcomes; without these anchors,
many young people may identify with a completely different culture which has
nothing to do with “who they are”.
Identity issues and their importance in the
school and the school library
The feeling of belonging is critical to every child’s well-being and
helps him/her to fulfill his potential in many different areas of development: physical,
social, emotional and cognitive (Welcoming Schools Childhood Education Program,
2015).
Cherek’s 2015 research is concerned
with ways that students can develop a healthy racial and ethnic identity and
improve their understanding and vocabulary around race and ethnicity, therefore
contributing to increased cultural competence; this contributes to higher
self-esteem and healthy development. By using these essential skills,
students have the opportunity to take ownership over their ideas and are
encouraged to examine the world around them -- at home, school, work and in the
media – thus preparing them to thrive in multicultural environments.
Essentially, children who feel good about themselves may be more
successful, not only at school but in different aspects of their lives (Tough, 2012). Identity is not something that individuals
automatically have. Identity develops over time, beginning in childhood,
through a process of “reflection and observation” (Erikson 1968, p. 22) Important
questions to ask about a child’s learning environment is does he/she see other teachers,
parents or students in the school who represent his/her own culture or
heritage? Who do these children identify
with? Who do they see as a reflection of themselves, e.g. public figures?
Using
these factors, the school library becomes a safe “public” space where a healthy
and proactive sense of diversity encourages deep and meaningful conversations
with all members of the school community about stereotypes such as
discrimination and racism.
involvement of the school library/ian in multicultural, multilingual
education
Ultimately,
the aim is that students, teachers and librarians are prepared to safely and
constructively deal with the dynamics of a multi-cultural society. Safe
facilitation requires “trained” leaders from the school community.
In larger schools with academic
disciplinary silos, it may be difficult to create positive messages about
mother tongue and cultural identity and pride across to members of the school
community as a whole – school leaders, teachers, students and parents. The EAL
(English as an Additional Language) teacher is most concerned about getting the
students up to speed and may inadvertently give the wrong message. The teaching of the student’s (minority)
language may not be part of the school language policy.
The Welcoming
Schools Childhood Education Program (2015) suggests that children who are
motivated and engaged in leaning are more committed to the school. By providing books, information and other
resources, the library can “provide an important mirror for children to see
themselves reflected in the world around them”. Here, library resources “also provide a window to the lives of
others. … [and] students also find positive role models through literature”;
benefits from such activities are best seen when coordinated in the school
community. The library can provide a stable permanent base for
the length of the student’s school career.
Research (Bedore and Peña, 2008) indicates that
bilingualism can only be sustained if there is at least a 30% input in the less
dominant language. If the less dominant
language is not a language which is used and taught within the school
community, then the library can provide access to relevant materials. This is an intellectual process of proving
the benefit and a practical exercise of resource collection, curation, access,
promotion and marketing. These can be very simple, such as the creation
of displays of books
about diversity, multiculturalism and multilingualism and about national days
of the countries which are represented by children at the school, and
reflecting their cultures.
In any event,
the school library is a helpful environment where students can reflect on these
issues. It can highlight resources, or
profile individuals relevent to various ethnic groups. This can be achieved by
exploring literature authored by indivudals from their ethnic own group or by reading
about the history of their own ethnic group. Additionally, the library can give
students the basic skills to find or locate this information.
Multicultural, multilingual school libraries
In 2012, Boelens, van
Dam and Tilke focused on various aspects
of multicultural and intercultural education, identifying a symbiotic
relationship with school libraries. It reported on support needs for both
children who were immigrants, i.e. those permanently moving from one country to
another, as well as more geo-mobile children, known as Third Culture Kids or Global
Nomads. Various relational features were identified: literacy, language,
bilingual education, world languages.
Krashen and Bland (2014)
have identified the need for second language learners to develop competencies
in academic language acquisition. Before that, self-selected recreational
reading habits were partly dependent on a varied, indeed wide, selection of
reading matter. In itself, this reading matter did not provide access to
academic language acquisition, but it prepared children to do so. This reading
stamina also had an effective domain, in that it motivated students to become
readers, and arguably gave them confidence. For some children who use school
libraries in multicultural education environments, the digital age was not
wholly relevant, as ebook use was associated with affluence. For children whose socio-economic experience is
that of poverty, libraries represent the only stable source of access to
reading materials, especially in developing and emerging countries. The provision, promotion and use of such
reading materials is a feature of the work of (school) libraries/ians in these
countries. These libraries/ians support
students and teach them to to navigate abundant sources of information. Such skills and aptitudes are commonly known
as information literacy skills.
Sometimes, the prevalence of information literacy skills is pervceived
as being a main role of the school library/ian, however the teaching of these
skills and the provision of reading
materials need to be symbiotically linked.
Smallwood and Becnel
(2012) identified various factors in successfully providing library services in
multicultural settings – accessing and reaching the clientele; provision of
appropriate materials; consideration of use of space; focusing services on
linguistic and socio-economic needs; appropriate technology; professional
development and awareness-raising amongst school librarians. Indeed, Welch
(2011) promoted the idea of the library collection having an aim of influencing
student behavior, in terms of increasing tolerance and sensitivity in a
multicultural setting.
Whilst not substantially
different from good practice elsewhere, the International Baccalaureate
Organization (IBO or IB) has identified good practice in library support for
multilingual learning environments (International Baccalaureate, 2012). Schools
that offer IB programmes comprise state or government schools,
semi-independent, independent and international schools. When a school adopts
IB programmes, it needs to also take ownership of IB philosophy, including a
holistic approach to language and international-mindedness (Singh and Qu,
2013). There is, therefore, a symbiotic link between language and intercultural
education approaches in schools which may (or should) experience strong
ESL (English as a Second Language) support (Carder, 2014), though the IB stance
is that every teacher is a teacher of language (International Baccalaureate,
2011).
Therefore, the
literature has identified a need to develop competencies in academic language
proficiency and a resource/information role for (both public and school)
libraries, especially for children, sometimes immigrants or refugees, who are
affected by poverty. Therefore, libraries may be part of scaffolding strategies
to support children who need language support, and which include resources and
facilities (space). Thinking and planning for such library services and support
needs to be holistic and wide-ranging (from facilities and plant to
professional development), all based on an understanding of the needs and
concerns of targeted client groups.
Focussing services on the needs of mutlicultural/ingual students
The librarian needs to establish the
current and future users of the school and its library, and user demographics (i.e.
how many students come from which minority or language group). Library collection and services should then
be related to such information.
School libraries have roles related
to literacy and reading, and teaching and learning of information literacy
skills. To support this, resources - mainly physical - have been
curated to serve a mainstream interpretation of students’ needs, often
curricular, and in the dominant language (often English). This role could be broadened to meet the needs
of the multicultural/lingual school community.
The library collection should
contain books and information (in
traditional and digital format) which reflect the diversity of the children in
the school. The library exposes the entire
school community to many different cultures and languages. This collection can help students to
understand that while their families are unique, they share many common values,
beliefs and traditions.
The collection should contain
literature in the native language of students, and link to digital
international children’s libraries and also digital libraries for children from
relatively small indigenous groups. This
could include online links to songs, poems and stories from many different
cultures and in many different languages.
It should also contain current information about student countries of
origin. Parents could be asked to help
the librarian with this task. (Smallwood and Becnel, 2012)
Using these guidelines, the school
librarian can strengthen the collection, and then present this information in
attractive ways to the entire school community, so that it becomes aware of the
extent ot their library’s resources.
Librarians can provide an enabling
portal function for immigrant, refugee and Third Culture Kids. They may be hesitant to assume this role,
perhaps due to mono-lingual experience or lack of expertise in the creation of digital
personal learning environments (PLEs) or personal learning networks (PLNs).
The librarian may consider applying
principles of information ecology to the school library. This multi-disciplinary emerging field offers
a framework within which to analyse the relationships between organisations,
information technology and information objects in a context whereby the human,
information technology and social information environment is in harmony
(Candela et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2015).
Steinerová (2011) and Candela et
al., (2007) looked at features of digital libraries and suggested that
librarians examine where value integration can take place between the library
service, technology, scholarship and culture, adding value through new services
or contributions to learning, user experience, research productivity, teaching
or presenting and preserving cultural heritage.
Applying these ideas to the school environment, constituents of the
eco-system include teachers, teacher librarians, students administration,
parents and custodial staff (Perrault, 2007). Elements of the system will
co-exist but also compete and share, converge and diverge in a dynamic
interactive, complex environment (García‐Marco, 2011). The role of the library is such that
information ecology needs to be understood in order to support information-seeking
behaviour and thereby discover zones of intervention and areas to leverage to
optimise advance information-seeking, usage, creation and dissemination within
that eco-system and beyond. In response, curriculum, content and subject
delivery can be collaboratively reshaped and constructed according to changes
in the environment or needs of students (O’Connell, 2014).
Different kinds of resources and
adaptive technologies can optimally support students with special educational
needs (Perrault, 2010, 2011; Perrault & Levesque, 2012). This type of
thinking can be adapted to considering the needs of bi- and multi-lingual
students who are part of the school’s information ecology, but have linguistic
and cultural learning and informational needs. These can be seen as a
potential zone of intervention for collaboration between the teacher, teacher
librarian (TL), family and community.
Literature intended
for school librarians generally discusses cultural diversity in materials and
the building of a world literature collection in response to student diversity
or as part of language and humanities curricula (Garrison, Forest, & Kimmel,
2014). Some schools build a “Languages other than English” (LOTE) collection.
To do so, schools may try to recruit bilingual or minority TLs or ask for
help from parents; schools can also provide training in competencies in
multicultural education (Colbert-Lewis & Colbert-Lewis, 2013; Everhart,
Mardis, & Johnston, 2010; Mestre, 2009).
The main
educational and social issues within schools are to ensure students acquire the
official language of instruction so that they can adapt to the new learning
environment without loss of educational momentum, while maintaining and
developing their mother tongue (Kim and Mizuishi, 2014). Carder (2007) and Cummins (2001; 2003)
suggest that even though there is evidence that supports the maintenance of
mother tongue (the most effective way of supporting such students), schools
place most effort and resources on the official language of instruction of the
school. Evidence now presented above
suggests that by doing so, children may lose some of their own healthy cultural
and ethnic identity.
School librarians may
be aware of geographically dispersed personal learning networks (PLNs) in order
to create a personal learning environment (PLE) using various technological
tools (McElvaney & Berge, 2009; O’Connell, 2014), and could assist different individuals throughout the
school community to make use of a PLE. For
instance, the International Baccalaureate (IB) allows students the option of
guided mother tongue self-study if the school does not teach that specific
language. Figure 1 below describes a PLE
of an IB self-taught language student.
Figure 1: PLE of an IB self-taught language student
A training program about multicultural/lingual
issues for the school community
In 2015, Boelens and Cherek examined the possibility of creating a personal
development training program for the entire school community, facilitated by
the school library. This is an attempt
to help teachers, school leaders, librarians and parents to better understand
problems being confronted by the multicultural/lingual school community,
especially immigrants and refugees. This
program would be made available through the school’s electronic learning environment.
The first part is a 24-minute video that provides an open conversation
about race and ethnicity between professionals and young people. Here, participants listen to different
perspectives about race and ethnicity, and appreciate why these topics are important
to both caregivers (teachers, social workers, child welfare professionals) and
young people. Finally, with the help of a
study guide, participants explore the possibility of integrating racial and
ethnic identity development into daily practice.
The second part is an eLearning course that provides participants with
necessary tools to develop a deeper understanding of issues related to racism
and discrimination. The content is
specifically designed so that professionals (adults, educators, caretakers)
develop a vocabulary for discussing race and ethnicity with others who are
interested in and concerned about these subjects. A constructive vocabulary is an essential
tool when discussing identity development, as it enables participants to safely
address issues of racism and discrimination.
Finally, participants can further integrate this deepened knowledge into
daily practice. This is an important part of the training because it prepares
participants for a facilitated in-person learning event.
The third and final part of the curriculum is a two day in-person
learning event. In this face-to-face
meeting, trained facilitators guide participants as they begin to incorporate
their new skills into daily practice. The
most effective and powerful events occur when both young people and
professionals are present. The training
is highly interactive and challenging.
Participants are encouraged to openly discuss the impact of stereotypes
and the social influences that affect their own racial and ethnic
identity.
A similar training program is by The Welcoming Schools Childhood
Education Program (2015), which provides a starter kit for a personal
development training programme for members of the school community, relating to
equity, school climate and academic achievement.
Tapping into the
experiences and communities of practise (COP) of distance education, massive
open online courses (MOOCs), school librarians could be trained to facilitate
this training program through PLNs and PLEs,
Training programs would be available at any time and in any geographic
location providing internet access is available. Initially, a pilot program
would be tested with one language group, and could later be extended to other
groups.
This training
program will help to establish a multicultural/lingual school community based
not only on academic achievement but also on a healthy climate with regard tp
racial, cultural and ethnicity issues.
It will also contribute to a school´s goals of equity in teaching and
will require the support and involvement of the entire school community. Since
library staff will be facilitating this program, their reputation will be
enhanced, and be perceived as integral members of the school community.
Conclusion
This paper has discussed a developing role for the school library in the
multicultural/lingual school community in 2015.
It promotes a training program for the entire school community which
will be facilitated by the librarian.
Because of their involvement in the school´s learning commons, the
librarian is already involved in interdisciplinary activites related to the
multicultural/lingual nature of the entire school.
While all aspects of identity development are valuable, one area that is
often ignored, especially when talking about young people who are detached from
their culture, is racial and ethnic identity. Along with ever-changing
realities of society, demographics and politics, the impact of race and
ethnicity have never been more important.
With an increasing number of migrant and immigrant students, the acute
reality of living in multiple worlds becomes more apparent. Social norms and values become entangled.
Home life, school life and street life compete for attention. Without proper guidance
and support, alienation that occurs when individuals feel split between
dissonant forces results in a confused sense of “Who am I?”. Addressing these
issues in an educational setting means that we as educators have the power to
create “safe spaces” for our captive student audience. Thus, students can be prepared to effectively
deal with the realities of a multi-cultural society while at the same time
developing a healthy sense of racial and ethnic identity.
As a result of the
proposed training program, students at the school will learn more about `who
they are`, especially those who come from an immigrant or refugee background. With the support of the entire school staff,
they will some to terms with their own cultural identity and ethnicity in their
new school and in their new place of residence, and have positive feelings,
with an expected corrolorry that their academic achievement will increase.
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Biographical notes
Helen Boelens (PhD) was awarded a
Ph.D. degree by Middlesex University, School of Arts and Education in 2010. She
now focuses her work on the development of and assistance to hundreds of
thousands of school libraries in developing countries. She is the former co-ordinator of the
Research SIG of the IASL (International Association of School Librarianship). She is also one of the founders of the ENSIL
Foundation (Stitching ENSIL).
John Martin Cherek Jr. (MSc) received a Master's in Political
Science from the University of Amsterdam in 2009. His thesis examined the
post-reintegration needs of former child soldiers in Sierra Leone. Before
moving to Amsterdam to study at the UvA, John worked Casey Family Programs. As
the largest operating foundation the U.S.A dedicated to improving outcomes for
children in foster care, John developed programs related to life skills
education, identity development and child welfare policy. Originally from the
United States, John holds a degree in
Psychology from Seattle University (2004). He works primarily with vulnerable
populations and specializes in education, mental health and youth & child
development.
Anthony
TIlke (PhD) has spent nearly 20 years in the
international school sector, in Asia and Europe. His doctoral thesis (from Charles Sturt
University, Australia) focused on the impact of an international school library
on the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Programme, and which
subsequently fed into his book about the Diploma and the school library/ian. A
common feature of his work is supporting mother tongue programmes in schools,
and he has contributed to an IB document “An IB educator’s story about the role
of librarians in multilingual learning communities”.
Nadine
Bailey (MPhil,
MBA, MIS) has lived and worked internationally for 20 years, in Africa, South
America, Europe and Asia. Her area of interest lies in language and identity
particularly related to students educated in a third culture environment. In an
increasingly digitised educational environment she argues that librarians play
an important curation and leadership role in guiding and enabling students to
create personal learning networks in and for their mother tongue language. In
that way libraries are both a safe physical and virtual space.
